Theoretical Framework

Previous research has identified key number competencies that predict later school mathematics outcomes (Jordan, Kaplan, Ol‡h, & Locuniak, 2006; Jordan, Glutting, & Ramineni, 2010). Also referred to as number sense, these competencies involve elements of counting, number knowledge, and number transformation (Malofeeva, Day, Saco, Young, & Ciancio, 2004; Jordan et al., 2006).

<>Although low-income children typically come to school with weak number sense relative to middle-income students (Jordan, Huttenlocher, & Levine, 1994; Jordan et al., 2006), evidence suggests that it is possible for all children to develop number competencies through targeted instruction (Dyson, Jordan, & Glutting, in press; Fuchs, 2005). Recent research also supports the idea that vocabulary knowledge influences at least some parts of numeracy development (Carey, 2004; Mix, Huttenlocher, & Levine, 2002) and that this knowledge also differs with SES levels (Jordan & Levine, 2009; Klibanoff, Levine, Huttenlocher, Vasilyeva, & Hedges, 2006; Hart & Risley, 1995).

It is conjectured that an intervention targeting specific quantitative vocabulary- words describing mathematical ideas and concepts – might increase children's ability to describe and manipulate number concepts (Wynn, 1992; Halberda, Taing, & Lidz, 2008; Bracken, 2006b). Many children's trade books provide ample opportunities to introduce rich quantitative vocabulary (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002), and previous research suggests that storybook interventions may lead to substantial gains in children's vocabulary understanding and literacy levels (Beck & McKeown, 2001a; Coyne, Simmons, Kame'enui, & Stoolmiller, 2004; Biemiller & Boote, 2006; Justice, Meier, & Walpole, 2005) and mathematical abilities (Jennings, Jennings, Richey, & Dixon-Krauss, 1992; Hong, 1996; Young-Loveridge, 2004). However, looking across the existing studies, a need for further research arises in several areas: using children's trade books to develop number competencies as well as general literacy skills; conducting U.S.-based studies; using high risk low-income, minority populations; and undertaking solid research methods including random assignment.

Methods

<>We seek to understand the ways in which students may concurrently develop quantitative vocabulary and number sense through the following research question: To what extent does explicit instruction in quantitative vocabulary through the Storybook Number Competencies intervention lead to gains in quantitative vocabulary understanding as well as children's number sense?

Participants

            Approximately 130 participants are being recruited from kindergarten classes in five K-5 urban schools serving children from predominately low-income, minority families. At each of the five schools, 1/3 of the participants will be randomly selected for the quantitative vocabulary intervention group that uses storybooks (Storybook Number Competencies), a number sense intervention group that does not use storybooks (Number Sense), and business-as-usual control group. Based on the work of Dyson et al. (in press), the Number Sense intervention contains direct instruction aimed at improving several facets of children's number sense including: counting, number knowledge, and number operations.

Data Sources

A pretest, immediate posttest, and delayed posttest design will be used. Dependent variables will include a validated assessment of numeracy indicators, the Number Sense Brief (NSB; Jordan, Glutting, Ramineni, & Watkins, 2010), a quantitative vocabulary test, the Bracken Basic Concept Scale 3: Receptive: Quantity subtest (BBCS-3: R; Bracken, 2006a), a measure of reading skill, the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement Brief Battery/Form C: Letter/Word Identification subtest (WJ-III; Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2007), and a standardized measure of mathematics achievement, the WJ-III: Applied Problems and Calculation subtests.

Storybook Number Competencies Intervention Approach

         After administering the pretest in December 2011, the intervention will begin in January 2012.   It will be conducted with groups of four children per instructor for three 30-minute sessions per week over the course of eight weeks. Six education graduate students will administer all of the measures and teach the intervention lessons. Preliminary versions of the lessons were field tested in 2010-2011 and will be revised in the fall of 2011.

         Before selecting words for the intervention, we consulted different mathematics curricula for kindergarten and the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (CCSI, 2010) in order to identify appropriate words. We modeled the vocabulary instruction after Beck & McKeown's (2001b) Text Talk curriculum. Each of the seven books contains three separate sessions of direct vocabulary instruction covering approximately six vocabulary words, many of which are repeated in subsequent books, in order to reinforce understanding of the words in different contexts. The last week of the intervention will focus on review.

Results/Conclusions

Means and standard deviations will be computed, by group, at three data points (pre, post, and delayed post) for the NSB total, BBCS-3: R quantity subtest, and WJ-III subtest scores. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) will be performed with the math, vocabulary, and reading measures as dependent variables We will covary for students' pretest performance in math and vocabulary. Effect sizes will be calculated to show practical significance.  Based on previous research (Dyson et al., in press), at post and delayed posttest, we anticipate that there will be a statistically significant difference between the two intervention groups and the control groups in the following ways: 1) the Storybook Number Competencies group will score highest on the BBCS-3: R and the WJ-III Letter-Word Identification subtest, and 2) the Number Sense group will score highest on the NSB with the Storybook Number Competencies group also scoring higher than the control group. Preliminary pre/posttest data and qualitative observations regarding intervention implementation will be available by the NCTM Annual Meeting.

Educational Significance

If low-income children are not provided with opportunities to grow their understanding of number before middle school, their chances of attending college significantly decrease (National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008).  However, research suggests that it is possible for most children—regardless of their socioeconomic backgrounds—to develop critical number sense through receiving explicit assistance (Dyson et al., in press). By connecting mathematics and vocabulary, children have the opportunity to gain concurrent experience in two key academic areas.

            If shown to be effective, the language intervention can be easily implemented in kindergarten programs. It also could be adapted for home situations.  By introducing a novel intervention concept, the current study may provide a way to potentially aid children in mathematics as well as vocabulary understanding and pre-reading skills.